Composition analysis and health risk assessment of the hazardous compounds in cooking fumes emitted from heated soybean oils with different refining levels.

The cooking fumes generated from thermal cooking oils contains various of hazardous components and shows deleterious health effects. The edible oil refining is designed to improve the oil quality and safety. While, there remains unknown about the connections between the characteristics and health risks of the cooking fumes and oils with different refining levels. In this study, the hazardous compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and particulate matter (PM) in the fumes emitted from heated soybean oils with different refining levels were characterized, and their health risks were assessed. Results demonstrated that the concentration range of aldehydes and ketones (from 328.06 ± 24.64 to 796.52 ± 29.67 µg/m3), PAHs (from 4.39 ± 0.19 to 7.86 ± 0.51 µg/m3), and PM (from 0.36 ± 0.14 to 5.08 ± 0.15 mg/m3) varied among soybean oil with different refining levels, respectively. The neutralized oil showed the highest concentration of aldehydes and ketones, whereas the refined oil showed the lowest. The highest concentration levels of PAHs and PM were observed in fumes emitted from crude oil. A highly significant (p < 0.001) positive correlation between the acid value of cooking oil and the concentrations of PM was found, suggesting that removing free fatty acids is critical for mitigating PM concentration in cooking fumes. Additionally, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) values of PAHs and aldehydes were 5.60 × 10-4 to 8.66 × 10-5 and 5.60 × 10-4 to 8.66 × 10-5, respectively, which were substantially higher than the acceptable levels (1.0 × 10-6) established by US EPA. The present study quantifies the impact of edible oil refining on hazardous compound emissions and provides a theoretical basis for controlling the health risks of cooking fumes via precise edible oil processing.

Effects of fat source in calf starter on growth performance, blood fatty acid profiles, and inflammatory markers during cold season.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of supplementation of different fat sources in calf starters on growth performance, health, blood fatty acid profiles, and inflammatory markers during the cold season in dairy calves. A total of 48 Holstein calves (24 males and 24 females) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 starter diets throughout the experiment (d 3 to 65): (1) no supplemented fat (CON), (2) 3% calcium-salts of soybean oil (Ca-SBO), (3) 3% calcium-salts of fish oil (Ca-FO), and (4) 3% mixture of Ca-SBO and Ca-FO (1.5% each, DM basis; MIX). Calves were given free access to starter feed and water and were raised individually in pens from 3 to 65 d of age. Calves fed Ca-SBO consumed a greater proportion of n-6 FA, while calves fed Ca-FO consumed a greater level of n-3 FA compared to the other dietary treatments. Fat supplementation increased the intake of linoleic acid, the major n-6 FA, with the greater intake observed in the Ca-SBO group compared to the other dietary treatments. Calves fed the Ca-FO and MIX diets consumed more long-chain n-3 FA than the other diets. In addition, calves fed Ca-SBO and Ca-FO diets consumed more starter feed and total dry matter than calves fed MIX and CON throughout the experiment (d 3 to 65). Calves fed Ca-FO had higher average daily gain throughout the trial (d 3 to 65) than the other treatment groups. Of all treatment groups, calves fed Ca-FO achieved the highest final body weight and showed the greatest feed efficiency. Random forest analysis revealed that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid were the serum levels of FA most affected by the diets. The principal component analysis of blood FA profile, blood parameters, and inflammatory markers showed distinct differences between dietary treatments. Calves fed Ca-SBO had higher plasma concentrations of linoleic acid, while calves fed Ca-FO had higher plasma concentrations of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as EPA, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and DHA than the other treatment groups. Plasma inflammatory markers were lower in calves fed Ca-FO and higher in calves fed CON than in the other treatment groups. The Ca-FO group had lower levels of inflammatory markers, including serum amyloid A, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, Interferon-γ, haptoglobin, and interleukin-6 compared to the other experimental treatments. Also, the blood malondialdehyde levels, an indicator of oxidative stress, were lower in calves fed Ca-FO compared with calves fed the other treatment diets. In conclusion, the performance of preweaned dairy calves can be improved by adding fat to their starter feed under cold conditions. Overall, the type of fat in milk may affect growth and inflammation of dairy calves before weaning under cold conditions, with n-3 FA (Ca-FO) promoting growth and reducing inflammation more effectively than n-6 FA (Ca-SBO).

Temperature-dependent particle number emission rates and emission characteristics during heating processes of edible oils.

The goal of this research is to investigate the temperature-dependent emission rates of particle numbers and emission characteristics during oil heating. Seven regularly used edible oils were studied in a variety of tests to attain this objective. First, total particle number emission rates ranging from 10 nm to 1 µm were measured, followed by an examination within six size intervals from 0.3 µm to 10 µm. Following that, the impacts of oil volume and oil surface area on the emission rate were investigated, and multiple regression models were developed based on the results. The results showed that corn, sunflower and soybean oils had higher emission rates than other oils above 200 °C, with peak values of 8.22 × 109#/s, 8.19 × 109#/s and 8.17 × 109#/s, respectively. Additionally, peanut and rice oils were observed to emit the most particles larger than 0.3 µm, followed by medium-emission (rapeseed and olive oils) and low-emission oils (corn, sunflower and soybean oils). In most cases, oil temperature (T) has the most significant influence on the emission rate during the smoking stage, but its influence was not as pronounced in the moderate smoking stage. The models obtained are all statistically significant (P < 0.001), with R2 values greater than 0.9, and the classical assumption test concluded that regressions were in accordance with the classical assumptions regarding normality, multicollinearity, and heteroscedasticity. In general, low oil volume and large oil surface area were more recommended for cooking to mitigate UFPs emission.

Photoacoustic Spectroscopy Combined with Integrated Learning to Identify Soybean Oil with Different Frying Durations.

Soybean oil produces harmful substances after long durations of frying. A rapid and nondestructive identification approach for soybean oil was proposed based on photoacoustic spectroscopy and stacking integrated learning. Firstly, a self-designed photoacoustic spectrometer was built for spectral data collection of soybean oil with various frying times. At the same time, the actual free fatty acid content and acid value in soybean oil were measured by the traditional titration experiment, which were the basis for soybean oil quality detection. Next, to eliminate the influence of noise, the spectrum from 1150 cm-1 to 3450 cm-1 was selected to remove noise by ensemble empirical mode decomposition. Then three dimensionality reduction methods of principal component analysis, successive projection algorithm, and competitive adaptive reweighting algorithm were used to reduce the dimension of spectral information to extract the characteristic wavelength. Finally, an integrated model with three weak classifications was used for soybean oil detection by stacking integrated learning. The results showed that three obvious absorption peaks existed at 1747 cm-1, 2858 cm-1, and 2927 cm-1 for soluble sugars and unsaturated oils, and the model based on stacking integrated learning could improve the classification accuracy from 0.9499 to 0.9846. The results prove that photoacoustic spectroscopy has a good detection ability for edible oil quality detection.

First report on quality and purity assessment of sweet almond oil in Brazilian body oils by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.

Sweet almond oil is a raw material with high-added value used in different products. Then, the aim of this study is to evaluate the quality and purity of 10 body oils based on sweet almond oils currently available in the Brazilian market. Fatty acid composition and triacylglycerol (TAG) profile were determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and atmospheric solids analysis probe mass spectrometry (ASAP-MS), respectively. The authenticity of samples was assessed using an analytical curve equation. Soybean oil was chosen as the adulterant because it is the cheapest vegetable oil commercialized in Brazil. Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) in conjunction with ASAP-MS classified product samples according to the type of vegetable oil (soybean and sweet almond oils). The addition of soybean oil (8.79% to 99.70%) was confirmed in samples. However, only two samples stated in their label the presence of soybean oil as an ingredient. These findings highlight the need for better oversight by regulatory bodies to ensure that consumers acquire high quality and authentic products based on equally high quality and purity of sweet almond oils.

Rapid detection of adulteration of olive oil with soybean oil combined with chemometrics by Fourier transform infrared, visible-near-infrared and excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy: A comparative study.

Several spectroscopic techniques have been used to detect olive oil adulteration. To evaluate the performance of these spectral techniques on this issue, this work performed a comparative study on identifying adulterated olive oil with different concentrations of soybean oil based on Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), visible-near-infrared (Vis-NIR) and excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy (EEMs) combined with chemometrics. Principal component analysis (PCA)/ multi-way-PCA analysis showed the feasibility of the three spectral methods for the identification of olive oil adulteration. The accuracy of FTIR and Vis-NIR based on partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) for adulterated olive oil was 100%, while the accuracy of EEMs based on unfold-PLS-DA was only 73%. The accuracy of EEMs combined with back-propagation artificial neural network based on self-weighted alternating trilinear decomposition is 100%. In comparison, FTIR and Vis-NIR are superior for the detection of olive oil adulteration due to the convenience of instrument operation and modeling.

The effect of PhIP precursors on the generation of particulate matter in cooking oil fumes at high cooking temperatures and the inflammation response in human lung cells.

Cooking Oil Fumes (COFs) contain carcinogenic organic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs), of which 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine (PhIP) is known as mainly meat-borne carcinogens. In this work, to identify the mechanisms to induce the inflammation response in human lung cells (A549) exposed to COFs, we investigated the physicochemical and biological characteristics of COFs generated with PhIP precursors (L-phenylalanine, creatinine, and glucose) at high cooking temperatures (300 °C and 600 °C). Interestingly, we found that PhIP was not formed both at 300 °C and 600 °C, while a large number of carbon nanoparticles were generated from soybean oil containing the PhIP precursors at 600 °C. From the biological analysis, COFs generated with the PhIP precursors at 600 °C induced the most significant pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-6). This result indicates that the particulate matter in COFs generated with the PhIP precursors above the smoke temperature is the primary factor directly affecting the lung inflammatory response rather than PhIP. This study demonstrates for the first time a novel principle of the inflammatory response that the PhIP precursors can aggravate lung injury by affecting the physical properties of COFs depending on cooking temperature. Therefore, our finding is a significant result of overcoming the bias in previous studies focusing only on the chemical toxicity of PhIP in the inflammatory response of COFs.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) Nut-Shell Liquid as Antioxidant in Bulk Soybean Oil.

Recently, natural antioxidants for the food industry have become an important focus. Cashew nut-shell liquid (CNSL) is composed of compounds that can act as natural antioxidants in food systems. The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential of CNSL and its components to act as natural antioxidants in a bulk oil system. CNSL was treated with calcium hydroxide to obtain two fractions [cardol/cardanols acid fraction (CCF) and anacardic acid fraction (AF)]. CNSL, FF and AF were analyzed by thin-layer chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The protective effects of CNSL, CCF and AF were tested in terms of the peroxide value of bulk soybean oil in accelerated assays and were compared against controls with and without synthetic antioxidants (CSA and CWA). CNLS, CCF, AF and CSA were tested at 200 mg/kg soybean oil by incubation at 30, 40, 50 and 60 °C for five days. The activation energy (Ea) for the production of peroxides was calculated by using the linearized Arrhenius equation. Thin-layer chromatography and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that (i) CNSL contained cardanols, anacardic acids, and cardols; (ii) CCF contained cardanols and cardols; and (iii) AF contained anacardic acids. CSA (Ea 35,355 J/mol) was the most effective antioxidant, followed by CCF (Ea 31,498 J/mol) and by CNSL (Ea 26,351 J/mol). AF exhibited pro-oxidant activity (Ea 8339 J/mol) compared with that of CWA (Ea 15,684 J/mol). Therefore, cardols and cardanols from CNSL can be used as a natural antioxidant in soybean oil.

Effects of the Seed Oil of Carica papaya Linn on Food Consumption, Adiposity, Metabolic and Inflammatory Profile of Mice Using Hyperlipidic Diet.

BACKGROUND: Studies indicate that different parts of Carica papaya Linn have nutritional properties that mean it can be used as an adjuvant for the treatment of various pathologies. METHODS: The fatty acid composition of the oil extracted from the seeds of Carica papaya Linn was evaluated by gas chromatography, and an acute toxicity test was performed. For the experiment, Swiss mice were fed a balanced or high-fat diet and supplemented with saline, soybean oil, olive oil, or papaya seed oil. Oral glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity tests were performed. After euthanasia, adiposity, glycemia, total cholesterol and fractions, insulin, resistin, leptin, MCP-1, TNF-α, and IL-6 and the histology of the liver, pancreas, and adipose tissue were evaluated. RESULTS: Papaya seed oil showed predominance of monounsaturated fatty acids in its composition. No changes were observed in the acute toxicity test. Had lower food intake in grams, and caloric intake and in the area of adipocytes without minimizing weight gain or adiposity and impacting the liver or pancreas. Reductions in total and non-HDL-c, LDL-c, and VLDL-c were also observed. The treatment had a hypoglycemic and protective effect on insulin resistance. Supplementation also resulted in higher leptin and lower insulin and cytokine resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Under these experimental conditions, papaya seed oil led to higher amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids and had hypocholesterolemic, hypotriglyceridemic, and hypoglycemic effects.

Grey Wolf Optimizer for Variable Selection in Quantification of Quaternary Edible Blend Oil by Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy.

A novel swarm intelligence algorithm, discretized grey wolf optimizer (GWO), was introduced as a variable selection tool in edible blend oil analysis for the first time. In the approach, positions of wolves were updated and then discretized by logical function. The performance of a wolf pack, the iteration number and the number of wolves were investigated. The partial least squares (PLS) method was used to establish and predict single oil contents in samples. To validate the method, 102 edible blend oil samples containing soybean oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil and sesame oil were measured by an ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer. The results demonstrated that GWO-PLS models can provide best prediction accuracy with least variables compared with full-spectrum PLS, Monte Carlo uninformative variable elimination-PLS (MCUVE-PLS) and randomization test-PLS (RT-PLS). The determination coefficients (R2) of GWO-PLS were all above 0.95. Therefore, the research indicates the feasibility of using discretized GWO for variable selection in rapid determination of quaternary edible blend oil.

Effect of Natural Antioxidants from Marigolds (Tagetes erecta L.) on the Oxidative Stability of Soybean Oil.

In recent years, synthetic antioxidants that are widely used in foods have been shown to cause detrimental health effects, and there has been growing interest in antioxidants realised from natural plant extracts. In this study, we investigate the potential effects of natural antioxidant components extracted from the forage plant marigold on the oxidative stability of soybean oil. First, HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) to screen and identify potential antioxidant components in marigold. Four main antioxidant components were identified, including quercetagetin-7-O-glucoside (1), quercetagetin (2), quercetin (3) and patuletin (4). Among them, quercetagetin (QG) exhibited the highest content and the strongest DPPH radical scavenging activity and effectively inhibited the production of oxidation products in soybean oil during accelerated oxidation, as indicated by reductions in the peroxide value (PV) and acid value (AV). Then, the fatty acids and volatile compounds of soybean oil were determined with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and headspace solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS). A total of 108 volatile components, including 16 alcohols, 23 aldehydes, 25 ketones, 4 acids, 15 esters, 18 hydrocarbons, and 7 other compounds, were identified. QG significantly reduced the content and number of aldehydes and ketones, whereas the formation of acids and hydrocarbons was completely prevented. In addition, the fatty acid analysis demonstrated that QG significantly inhibited oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Consequently, QG was identified as a potential, new natural antioxidant that is believed to be safe, effective and economical, and it may have potential for use in plant extracts feed additives.

Effect of chelated source of additional zinc and selenium on performance, yolk fatty acid composition, and oxidative stability in laying hens fed with oxidised oil.

1. The following study determined whether the effects of the combined addition of zinc amino acid complex (ZA) and selenomethionine (SM) was superior to their single addition in controlling the oxidative stress induced by dietary oxidised fat in laying hens.2. Two hundred and forty 32-week-old laying hens were divided into the following dietary treatments (each consisting of six replicates of eight birds): 1) a fresh soy oil (FSO) diet; 2) an oxidised soy oil (OSO) diet; 3) an OSO diet plus 20 mg zinc as ZA/kg (OSO+ZA); 4) an OSO diet plus 0.2 mg selenium as SM/kg (OSO+SM); and 5) an OSO diet plus ZA and SM (OSO+ZA+SM).3. After 10 weeks of feeding hens, feed intake, egg production, and egg mass in the OSO+ZA+SM group were similar to the FSO group but better (P < 0.05) than those in the OSO group. Shell thickness and shell breaking strength were significantly improved by the OSO+ZA and OSO+ZA+SM treatments.4. Increases in the yolk concentrations of palmitic acid and total saturated fatty acids (SFA), and decreases in yolk linoleic acid, n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), total PUFA, and PUFA/SFA ratio were induced by dietary oxidised fat which were normalised (P < 0.05) by OSO+SM and OSO+ZA+SM.5. An increase (P < 0.05) in malondialdehyde and a decrease in 2,2-diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity in the yolk, induced by dietary oxidised fat, was significantly improved by all dietary supplementations, but only birds fed the OSO+ZA+SM diet exhibited similar values to those fed FSO.6. In conclusion, the simultaneous inclusion of organic zinc plus selenium in the oxidised fat diets was beneficial for improving egg-laying performance, yolk fatty acid profile, and oxidative stability, but not for internal egg quality, compared with either zinc or selenium alone in laying hens.

Mathematical modeling and multivariate analysis applied earliest soybean harvest associated drying and storage conditions and influences on physicochemical grain quality.

Anticipating the harvest period of soybean crops can impact on the post-harvest processes. This study aimed to evaluate early soybean harvest associated drying and storage conditions on the physicochemical soybean quality using of mathematical modeling and multivariate analysis. The soybeans were harvested with a moisture content of 18 and 23% (d.b.) and subjected to drying in a continuous dryer at 80, 100, and 120 °C. The drying kinetics and volumetric shrinkage modeling were evaluated. Posteriorly, the soybean was stored at different packages and temperatures for 8 months to evaluate the physicochemical properties. After standardizing the variables, the data were submitted to cluster analysis. For this, we use Euclidean distance and Ward's hierarchical method. Then defining the groups, we constructed a graph containing the dispersion of the values of the variables and their respective Pearson correlations for each group. The mathematical models proved suitable to describe the drying kinetics. Besides, the effective diffusivity obtained was 4.9 × 10-10 m2 s-1 promoting a volumetric shrinkage of the grains and influencing the reduction of physicochemical quality. It was observed that soybean harvested at 23% moisture, dried at 80 °C, and stored at a temperature below 23 °C maintained its oil content (25.89%), crude protein (35.69%), and lipid acidity (5.54 mL). In addition, it is to note that these correlations' magnitude was substantially more remarkable for the treatments allocated to the G2 group. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity was negatively correlated with all the physicochemical variables evaluated. Besides this, the correlation between crude protein and oil yield was positive and of high magnitude, regardless of the group formed. In conclusion, the early harvest of soybeans reduced losses in the field and increased the grain flow on the storage units. The low-temperature drying and the use of packaging technology close to environmental temperatures conserved the grain quality.

Liquid Chicken Oil Could Be a Healthy Dietary Oil.

Liquid chicken oil is similar to the human lipid ratio, and is similar to the ideal fatty acids ratio suggested by Hayes, but its benefits remain unclear (Hwang, K.N.; Tung, H.P.; Shaw, H.M. J. Oleo. Sci. 69, 199-206 (2020)). Using soybean oil as a control, liquid chicken oil, coconut oil, lard oil, and olive oil, were tested on SD rats with the rodent diet 5001 plus 1% of high cholesterol addition and moderate 10 % of test oils. Positive results showed that a 10% liquid chicken oil diet reduced LDL and triglycerides, atherogenic index while increasing superoxide dismutase more than the soybean oil control (0.05 ≦ p < 0.10). Moreover, increment of hepatic endogenous glutathione peroxidase was found to be significantly different from the soybean oil control (p < 0.05). In this study, liquid chicken oil had more benefits than vegetable soybean dietary oil, with little evidence of hyperlipidemia. Comparison of the test oils with categories of fatty acids to the idea ratio SFA : MUFA : PUFA = 1 : 1.5 : 1, scored by its average weight implied a parallel trend of lipidemia and hepatic antioxidant activity to its score. It is difficult to use the test of rat to reflect human physiology, it remain 19% different of the fatty acids ratio from human ratio, however, this study reveal that the healthiness of a dietary oil seems relate well to its compatibility to the idea ratio or the host oil ratio, in this case, it is the human ratio.

Application of Raman spectroscopy in the rapid detection of waste cooking oil.

Raman spectra were used to distinguish waste cooking oil from edible vegetable oils. Signals at 869, 969, 1302 and 1080 cm-1 were found to be crucial to distinguish waste cooking oil from five edible oils using PCA. When waste cooking oil was added to soybean or olive oil, PCA could separate adulterated and pure oils, when the adulteration proportions reached 10% and 20%, respectively. Peaks at 969 (R2 > 0.951), 1267 (R2 = 0.987) and 1302 (R2 > 0.984) cm-1 responded linearly to adulteration. Heating assays and 1H NMR analysis revealed that differences between the Raman spectra of waste cooking oil and edible oils at 969 and 1267 cm-1 were directly related to heat treatment. This work highlights the potential for Raman spectroscopy to detect waste cooking oil.

Determination of 3-monochloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters in fatty matrices by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

The development and validation of a method for the analysis of traces of 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD) esters (19) and glycidyl esters (7) of fatty acids in vegetable oils, margarine, biscuits and croissants was performed. An extraction method based on the use of solvents (tert­butyl methyl ether (20% ethyl acetate, v/v)) was carried out and cleaning of the extract with a mixture of sorbents (Si-SAX, PSA and Z-sep+) was optimized for the elimination of fatty interferents. The analysis of the targeted compounds was carried out by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, using a triple quadrupole analyzer (UHPLC-MS/MS-QqQ). The validation of the method provided trueness values between 72 and 118% and precision lower than 20%. The limits of quantification ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 mg kg-1, which were below the current legal limits. Twenty samples of vegetable oils as well of 4 samples of margarine, biscuits and croissants were analyzed. Six out of the 24 samples (25%) exceeded the limits set by European legislation, and a maximum contamination of 3-MCPD esters at 2.52 mg kg-1 was obtained in a sample of corn oil (being 1-myristoyl-3-MCPD the compound detected at the highest concentration). A maximum concentration of glycidyl esters at 7.84 mg kg-1 was determined in a soybean oil sample (glycidyl linoleate as the main compound). Only one sample of olive oil exceeded the maximum allowable limit for 3-MCPD esters with a value of 1.72 mg kg-1, expressed as 3-MCPD.

Unlocking the potential of minimally processed corn germ oil and high oleic soybean oil to prepare oleogels for bakery application.

In this study, the influence of sunflower wax (SFX) concentration (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 wt%) on the properties of oleogels prepared using expeller-pressed corn germ oil (EPC) or high oleic soybean oil (EPS) was comprehensively investigated. Overall, oleogels can be prepared from both EP oils at an SFX level ≥3 wt%. The strength of oleogels depends on SFX concentration. EPS oleogels had better rheological properties and a higher amount of platelet-like crystals than EPC oleogels. The characteristics of cookies prepared with both oleogels were evaluated and compared to cookies prepared with commercial shortening. The lipid distribution in the cookies as visualized by CLSM suggested that EPS oleogels with a 5 or 7 wt% SFX had a greater possibility of replacing commercial shortening as they exhibited even lipid distribution which enabled good air-incorporation and air retention abilities. This research provides a foundation for developing healthy bakery products by using minimally processed oil based oleogels.

Soy oil conjugated linoleic acid production with solar light photoisomerization.

The objectives were (1) to produce soy oil conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) triacylglycerides in large quantities with solar light photoisomerization, utilizing iodine as a photosensitizer, (2) to study the temperature variation in the photoisomerized oil during various hours of the day, and (3) to study the variations in solar light intensity during various hours of the day. A 0.5% iodine containing soy oil in glass box with a glass lid was photoisomerized, under natural solar light for 0, 11, and 27 days, and CLA isomers were determined with gas chromatography with flame ionization detector. After 27 days of solar light photoisomerization, the cis-9, trans-11 CLA; other cis, trans CLA; trans-10, cis-12 CLA; trans, trans CLA, and total CLA were found to be 0.62 ± 0.05%, 1.04 ± 0.09%, 0.54 ± 0.11%, 6.16 ± 0.68%, and 8.37 ± 0.90%, respectively. The concentration of CLA isomers between 0 and 11 days was significantly different (p < .05), and the concentration of CLA isomers between 0 and 27 days was also significantly different (p < .05). There is no significant difference (p > .05) in CLA concentration between 11 and 27 days treatment. The CLA was not found in control soy oil samples. The CLA isomers were measured with GDFID in 45 min instead of 120min. The temperature of the edible oil in glass boxes ranged from 26 °C (8 a.m.) to 56 °C (1 p.m.). The light intensity ranged from 4,146 lux (7 p.m.) to 95,490 lux (12 p.m.). Glass lid on the glass box affected light transmission to a small but statistically significant extent (p < .05). The CLA isomers could be energy efficiently and inexpensively produced in soy oil by solar light photoisomerization, at low temperature and without needing expensive reactor vessels or catalysts. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: CLA was produced effectively with the iodine sensitized solar light photoisomerization. CLA is produced in large quantities, inexpensively, for possible food additive applications. Produced CLA is in the form of stable triacylglycerides.

Assessment of Soybean Oil Oxidative Stability from Rapid Analysis of its Minor Component Profile.

The minor components of vegetable oils are important for their oxidative stability. In order to know to what extent they can influence oil behaviour under oxidative conditions, two commercial soybean oils, one virgin and the other refined, both with very similar compositions in acyl groups but differing in their minor component profiles, were subjected to accelerated storage conditions. They were characterized by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and direct immersion solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (DI-SPME-GC/MS), while oil oxidation was monitored by 1H-NMR. The lower levels of tocols and sterols in the virgin oil, together with its higher free fatty acid content when compared to the refined one, result in a lower oxidative stability. This is deduced from faster degradation of acyl groups and earlier generation of hydroperoxides, epoxides, and aldehydes in the virgin oil. These findings reveal that commercial virgin soybean oil quality is not necessarily higher than that of the refined type, and that a simple and rapid analysis of oil minor components by DI-SPME-GC/MS would enable one to establish quality levels within oils originating from the same plant species and similar unsaturation level regarding composition in potentially bioactive compounds and oxidative stability.

Determination of biodiesel and used cooking oil in automotive diesel/green diesel fuels through high-performance liquid chromatography.

This study reports a simple and convenient analytical method for the simultaneous determination of biodiesel and vegetable oils or used cooking oils in petrodiesel and green diesel (hydrotreated vegetable oils or paraffinic diesel). The approach is based on normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with refractive index detection. It employed silica stationary phase, n-hexane mobile phase with isopropanol modifier to achieve optimum separation between hydrocarbons (petrodiesel or green diesel), fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel) and triglycerides (vegetable oils and used cooking oil). In addition to determining vegetable oils or used cooking oils as adulterants in diesel, this method is also proposed as a better alternative to the standard method ASTM D7371, which is currently recommended for determining fatty acid methyl esters in petrodiesel. The method development involved screening of various stationary and mobile phases, with and without modifiers, to achieve acceptable chromatographic resolutions between analytes. Under the optimized method conditions, silica column, and n-hexane containing 0.6% isopropanol as the mobile phase provided the best results. The real-world scenario was simulated for the method validation carried out by fortifying Jatropha seed oil, soybean oil, and used cooking oil in the biodiesel blended petrodiesel and green diesel. Measurement of all analytes was accompanied by high precision, low limit of detection/quantification and linear response range of 0.05 to 50% for biodiesel, and 0.05 to 30% for vegetable oils. The proposed method is simple, fast (runtime 7 min), and does not require sample pre-treatment and backflushing.